Mingma Chhiri Sherpa

Abstract

This article delves into the post-disaster resilience of mountain tourism in the Manang District of Nepal emphasizing the ACAP (Annapurna Conservation Area Project). The study focuses on the impacts of natural disasters, such as flash floods, debris flows, earthquakes, landslides on the region’s tourism infrastructure, emphasizing the need for a robust resilience framework. Through a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies, this article explores recovery responses, community engagement, and the role of social capital in fostering resilience. The findings contribute valuable insights into the challenges faced by mountainous regions and offer sustainable recovery strategies.

Introduction

Located in the breathtaking landscapes of Manang, Nepal, the ACAP (Annapurna Conservation Area Project) route promises an unforgettable trekking and mountaineering experience. But it’s not all smooth sailing. The area faces serious threats from natural disasters like flash floods, debris flows, landslides, and avalanches. Recovering from these calamities and preparing for future ones is key to keeping the region’s tourism industry thriving. In this article, explore how Manang along the ACAP route is dealing with these challenges, what progress has been made in recovering, and how locals and authorities are working together to reduce risks.

Figure 1: Manag District, field survey Map 2023.

Mountain tourism, characterized by its breathtaking landscapes and unique cultural experiences, has gained significant popularity in recent years (Smith et al., 2015). However, the vulnerability of mountainous regions to various natural disasters poses a substantial threat to the sustainability of tourism in these areas. The increasing frequency and intensity of disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, and avalanches have highlighted the need for a robust post-disaster resilience framework in mountain tourism (Jones & Wang, 2021).

Resilience has been conceptualized in numerous ways within the context of post-disaster (Norris et al., 2007). According to Norris et al. (2007) resilience can be defined as the capacity of individuals, communities, ecosystems, or systems to absorb, recover from, adapt to, or undergo transformation in the face of stressors, shocks, or disturbances. This definition encompasses not only the ability to withstand adverse events but also the capacity to bounce back and potentially thrive in the aftermath (Norris et al., 2007). Post-disaster resilience specifically focuses on the ability of individuals, communities, or systems to recover and adapt in the aftermath of a disaster. It involves the capacity to rebuild physical and social infrastructure, restore essential services, and enhance long-term adaptive strategies to reduce vulnerability to future disaster (Paton & Johnston,2001).

Due to its Alpine-Himalayan physiographic conditions, Nepal is among the world’s twenty most disaster-prone countries (Ghimire, 2015). Floods, landslides, and earthquakes are frequent in the mountainous regions, significantly impacting tourists and tourism enterprises (Ghimire, 2015). Tourists, who often plan trips well in advance and travel long distances, face challenges in evacuating during emergencies, making it difficult to close tourism activities preemptively (Ghimire, 2015).

Many studies have focused disaster resilience, but no study has focused disaster resilience on mountain tourism destinations of Nepal.  especially community resilience through mountain tourism and Socio-capital in resilience building. The Proposed research aim to determine the post-disaster resilience in mountain tourism and community.

Literature Review

The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies has defined disaster can be either natural or human-caused consequences and can contain pandemics, technological disasters, or environmental catastrophe. ISO has classified natural disasters into geophysical, biological, meteorological, hydrological, and climatological.

Source: Adopted from Lin et al. (2020)

International organization for standarization(ISO) has cassified a natural disaster into five catagoreis. earthquake, volcano, landslide, and rockfall are included in geophycial section, and these disasters are the prone area in the mountain region too. Another section of biological has mentioned that epdemics, infextious diseases and insects’bites are catagorized in this section, similary, in metrological section, local stroms, tropical, extratropical cyclones and trondoes are the major disaster. Additinally Tsunami, floods, hailstroms, landslides, and rockfall catastropes are in hydrological section and finally, climatological section has major disaster area in heat wave, cold wave, forest fire, and drought.

Figure 2: Disaster Risk management Cycle Source: Rana et al. (2021b)

The disaster risk management cycle, as depicted in Figure 1, comprises four stages: Prevention/Mitigation and Preparedness during the pre-disaster phase, and Response and Rehabilitation/Reconstruction in the post-disaster phase. In the “Prevention/Mitigation” stage, endeavors are directed at averting or lessening damage, such as the construction of structures like dikes and dams to combat floods. Activities aimed at ensuring a prompt response to hazards fall under “Preparedness,” encompassing initiatives like emergency drills and public awareness campaigns, which are not intended to prevent disasters but enhance readiness. “Response” involves actions like rescue operations, first aid, firefighting, and evacuation. In the “Rehabilitation/Reconstruction” phase, considerations of disaster risk reduction should underpin all activities.

Figure 3: The Disaster Resilience of Place (DROP) model Source: Cutter et al. (2008)

Cutter et al. (2008) conducted an exploration of the intricate relationship between vulnerability and resilience in the context of disaster events, presenting their findings through the Disaster Resilience of Place (DROP) model (Figure 3). The DROP models.

conceptualizes vulnerability and resilience as distinct yet interconnected concepts. According to this model, the vulnerability/resilience of a system to a disaster event is shaped by the underlying relationships, termed antecedent conditions, which exist between natural systems, social systems, and the built environment.

In the DROP model, these antecedent conditions interact with the characteristics of the disaster event, which may vary based on factors such as the nature of the disaster, geographical location, and others. The immediate effects of the disaster event are then manifested, and these effects can either be mitigated or exacerbated by post-event coping measures, such as disaster management and resilience plans. The complete impact of the disaster event is realized at this stage.

Moreover, Cutter et al. highlight that the impact of a disaster event on a system is influenced by the absorptive capacity of that system. If the absorptive capacity is not surpassed, recovery tends to be swift. However, if the absorptive capacity is exceeded, the system has two potential responses: adaptation leading to a quick recovery, or failure to adapt resulting in a slower recovery or, in extreme cases, no recovery at all. Importantly, the model underscores the significance of mitigation and preparedness efforts, emphasizing their role in enhancing antecedent conditions ahead of potential future occurrences of the disaster event (Cutter et al., 2008).

Post-disaster resilience in Mountain tourism development and sustainability

Norris et al. (2007) explores resilience as the capacity to absorb, recover from, adapt to, or undergo transformation in the face of stressors, providing a foundational understanding applicable to mountain tourism contexts. Ghimire’s (2015) research highlights Nepal’s vulnerability to disasters due to its Alpine-Himalayan physiographic conditions, emphasizing the need for effective post-disaster resilience strategies in its mountain tourism industry. Ritchie and Jiang (2019) stress the importance of holistic approaches for resilient tourism systems, emphasizing collaboration, community engagement, and adaptive management practices in understanding post-disaster resilience in mountain tourism. Becken et al. (2013) explores the interconnectedness of tourism and community resilience, underscoring the pivotal role of local communities and their engagement in post-disaster resilience strategies for mountain tourism destinations.

Researchers have highlighted the vulnerability of mountain tourism destinations to natural disasters (Smith et al., 2015). Earthquakes, landslides, and climate change-related events pose significant challenges to the sustainability of tourism in mountainous regions (Jones & Wang, 2021). According to McCall et al. (1992) and Rose et al. (2004) in the conventional understanding of geo-hazards, disasters are often perceived as outcomes of nature veering off its normal course. This perspective attributes events such as a breached river following heavy rains, a seismic upheaval altering the topography, or the interruption of mountain communities’ daily lives due to landslides blocking access to the external world, to the capriciousness of nature. Notably, explanations and limitations in this view are ascribed not to social histories but to the extremes of nature, challenging terrains, and severe climates.

Community resilience within mountain tourism is recognized as crucial for mitigating the adverse impacts of disasters, with studies emphasizing the significance of strong social networks, community cohesion, and collaborative efforts in adaptation and recovery (Floyd & Pennington-Gray, 2017). The exploration of socio-capital components within mountain tourism communities reveals the pivotal role of social trust, shared values, and collaborative networks in building resilience (Jamal & Stronza, 2019).

Figure 4: Types of disaster-prone area Source: Field survey, 2023

The survey and field observations conducted in the Manang District reveal the region’s susceptibility to various natural hazards, particularly flash floods, debris flows, and landslides. These hazards pose significant risks to both tourism infrastructure and community settlements. The data collected indicates that the most severe post-disaster threat in the region is flash floods, which are often triggered by heavy rainfall, leading to rapid and destructive inundation of local areas. The data figure 1 shows that The Manang Region is particularly susceptible to flash floods, debris flows, and landslides, making it a high-risk area for these natural disasters. According to the respondents the major impact had been made by flesh flood, debris flow, burst of Marsyangdi River in 2021, June 16.

In the Manang region, the most severe post-disaster threat is flash floods, presenting a significant risk due to their rapid and destructive nature. These floods, often triggered by heavy rainfall, pose substantial challenges to local infrastructure, touristic route, and community safety. On the other end of the spectrum, droughts and storms are comparatively lower in impact. Droughts may bring challenges to water availability and agriculture, while storms can cause disruptions, albeit with lesser intensity than flash floods. Understanding the hierarchy of these disasters is crucial for prioritizing resilience efforts, focusing on effective mitigation strategies and ensuring the overall preparedness of the region. The floods, accompanied by landslides, had widespread consequences across the district, leading to the destruction of 59 houses and rendering many others uninhabitable. Although there were no human casualties, the district headquarters, Chame, faced severe disruption as approximately 54 kilometers of roads were destroyed. Two years after the disaster, the region still grapples with the aftermath, and locals fear potential displacement due to the lack of reliable rehabilitation measures.

Figure 5: Disaster prone area in Manag in 2015, and current scenario Source: Field survey,2023

Figure 6: Disaster prone area In Manag in 2015, recovered area.  Source: Field survey,2023

Recovery Responses Related to Socio-Capital Aspects in Mountain Tourism

Source: Field survey, 2023

• Household Recovery: The damage to households from flash floods and debris flow. The recovery rates, including house renovations and relocations, suggest a response to address the immediate housing needs of the affected population. Financial support from the Nepal government, in collaboration with regional authorities, played a crucial role.
• Trekking Route Rehabilitation: The collapse of wooden and suspension bridges along trekking routes posed challenges to accessibility. Reinforcement efforts supported by various levels of government highlight a collaborative approach to rebuilding critical infrastructure for tourism and local transportation.
• Trekking Trail Restoration: The damaged trekking trail, emphasizing the importance of maintaining the region’s tourism infrastructure. The successful rebuilding of the trail, with the support of the local government, highlights community resilience and the significance of local governance in recovery efforts.

The Role of community engagement

Communities are the key role players in this region for decision-making and forcing to raise funds during unprecedented circumstances or natural events. Locals people are intensively engaged in a supportive manner where they have been participating in different natural disaster management meetings, cooperating with local provinces, government, and municipality. At the time of devastation, post-disaster recovery in mountainous regions, community engagement has proved to be pivotal for a context-specific and resilient response. Local knowledge contributes to effective risk assessment and early warning systems, ensuring timely communication of hazards. Communities actively participate in disaster preparedness, resource mobilization, and infrastructure planning, aligning with the “Build Back Better” principle. In addition to physical recovery, community engagement addresses psychosocial impacts, supporting emotional well-being and fostering community cohesion. Preserving unique mountain cultures and identities is integrated into recovery efforts. Ultimately, involving affected communities empowers them to shape their recovery, promoting sustainability and resilience tailored to the challenges of mountain environments.

One interviewer answered that “We worked with each other while occurring any disaster occurrence and established a seminar for recovery process. And sometimes we organized community engagement, but it was very hard to cope with the situation because we did not have any pre-planning for evacuation. When disaster happen, we also encouraged to support from local government and local communities.”

The effectiveness of emergency preparedness measure

The editorial conducted in the Manang district within the Annapurna Conservation Area assessed the effectiveness of emergency preparedness measures in the aftermath of disasters. In this article have examined the efficiency of early warning systems tailored to mountainous terrain, ensuring timely and accurate communication of impending hazards. Community training and preparedness initiatives were scrutinized for their impact on empowering residents to respond effectively to emergencies, considering the distinct challenges posed by the rugged landscape. The resilience of critical infrastructure, such as roads and bridges, was evaluated to ascertain its ability to withstand and recover from disasters. The article also delved into the mobilization and allocation of resources, the role of local governance in decision-making, and the effectiveness of communication strategies in disseminating timely information. Incorporating lessons learned from previous disasters and considering environmental sustainability were crucial aspects guiding the adaptability of emergency preparedness plans to the specific vulnerabilities inherent in the mountainous environment of the Manang district. This comprehensive assessment contributes valuable insights for strategies to bolster resilience and mitigate the impact of future disasters in this unique and challenging landscape.

A participant mentioned that “we had a major problem of deficiency in being prepared for emergencies during natural disasters, and the recovery process, including funding and resource management, tends to be prolonged, and it was so hard to predict the future disaster, so we were encouraging to build an emergency sign for disaster”.

Bonding, bridging, and linking social capital on Manang District: Post disaster resilience.

In the Manang District, bonding, bridging, and linking social capital play integral roles in the context of disaster recovery. Bonding social capital is evidenced by the strong ties within close-knit mountain communities. Following events like the 2015 earthquake, flesh floods and landslides in Nepal, families, friends, and neighbors in Manang exhibited resilient relationships, providing mutual support, sharing resources, and offering emotional assistance.

Bridging social capital is observed through connections between different communities within the district. Collaborations between neighboring villages, joint infrastructure projects, and shared water management practices exemplify the presence of bridging social capital, highlighting cooperation and mutual aid on a broader community scale.

Linking social capital involves connections between local communities and external entities, such as government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), or international organizations. In the Manang District, evidence of linking social capital can be found in effective communication and collaboration between local authorities and external agencies during disaster recovery. Partnerships formed with national disaster management organizations or international NGOs demonstrate the district’s ability to leverage external resources and expertise.

As participants said that “we had a strong social bounding that we worked together to support, but at the same time it was complicated to manage by communities itself because there was lack of funding, shifting the better place and decisive plan during the events, sometimes we felt like as a nightmare”.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this article focuses on the resilience of mountain tourism in Nepal’s Manang District post-disasters. The research emphasizes the critical challenges presented by events like flash floods, highlighting the immediate need for a strong resilience framework. The introduction of bonding, bridging, and linking social capital emphasizes the essential role of community engagement. Active local participation in disaster management underscores the importance of community resilience. The evaluation of emergency preparedness identifies areas for enhancement, providing practical insights for future resilience strategies in mountain tourism. To facilitate effective recovery, forthcoming efforts should prioritize community engagement, strengthen social connections, and improve emergency preparedness measures.

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